Learning Theories in the Classroom

In order to help others grow, a teacher needs to learn about the learners in his or her class and be prepared to work with a diverse range of students with different needs. Young students need to be presented with lessons geared to concrete thinkers, while older students should be better able to learn abstract concepts and may be interested in synthesizing principles from materials they gather online. Teacher lectures may appeal most to logical, sequential thinkers, or to motivated students who thirst for knowledge and understanding. Holistic thinkers may be happier with a less structured learning environment and working in groups with peers.

Just as a composer must learn compositional techniques in order to put them together elegantly in a piece of music, or an artist must have knowledge of the theory of colors and a command of the brush, teachers or instructional designers, must be aware of a variety of educational theories and techniques that can help students become strong learners. Principles of behaviorism, social modeling, constructivism, and multiple intelligences can all help teachers provide high-quality design that will change students favorably when implemented.

Learning Theories

Behaviorism

Reinforcement and punishment. The theory of behaviorism describes learning in terms of acquiring new behaviors in response to positive or negative feedback. Behaviorism was first developed by Pavlov, who described creating responses in dogs by ringing a bell and then feeding them; it was subsequently introduced into American psychology in 1913 by John Watson and further developed by B. F. Skinner (Driscoll, 2000). According to Skinner (1938) and other behaviorists, people learn to perform desired behaviors when they are rewarded or given positive feedback. Behaviorists call a positive consequence “positive reinforcement.” Children also learn not to perform negative behaviors when they are punished. A punishment is a negative outcome of behavior, administered to make it less likely that the behavior will be performed again—for example, a loss of recess. Behavior also can be modified through withholding a possible consequence, which is called negative reinforcement—for example, students might do their homework to avoid losing their recess the next day.

Structuring learning with objectives and reinforcement. In terms of learning, Skinner (1968) thought a task was easiest to learn when it was broken down into small steps and learners received immediate feedback on performance. In particular positive reinforcement can encourage correct performance. Skinner added that learners benefit from hearing directions repeated, and that by learning simple tasks, learners can assemble skills to perform more complex tasks. Bloom (1956) suggested that the increasingly complex responses students learn include knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In general, behaviorist theorists consider it important to state the overall objectives of the lesson or course; the activities students will be asked to perform to carry out objectives, and the way learning will be assessed (Bloom, 1956), so students know which activities to perform to meet objectives and gain rewards.

More recently behaviorist theorists have introduced cognitive considerations such as student attention, previous knowledge and memory into their framework. For example, Gagne (1965, 1985) elaborated on Skinner in formulating “Nine Events of Instruction.” He thought teachers would be more effective not only if they stated the class objectives and provided feedback and assessment but also if they got learners’ attention and reminded them of what they had learned already. He also emphasized repeating material so students could remember it over time. Gagne felt that different kinds of presentations, practice and guidance might be needed for different learners so that his approach takes some account of students as individuals. Mager (1984) also focused on what students need to know about teacher objectives in order to understand them—that is, students need to know what behaviors to carry out,  what conditions are relevant for the task, and to what degree to perform the task to meet an acceptable standard.

Merrill (1983) added that when a lesson uses objectives together with rules, practice, recall, examples and practice, students will learn better. He thought different types of students could benefit from using different types of exercise to attain objectives. For example, “serialist” learners like to learn things in order. They may prefer to see a demonstration with list of steps first and examples afterwards. “Holist” learners may prefer to see examples first and then work out a definition from the examples. However, Merrill (2000) felt teachers should present all learners with objectives and a variety of techniques for learning them.

Yet, some people do not respond well to rewards and punishments. Kohn (1999) found that rewards can damage a student’s intrinsic motivation and lower the quality of performance. Some students may find behaviorist techniques less motivating than interesting content or a challenge. Rotter (1956) also criticized Behaviorism because he felt that if one did not intrinsically value an outcome, one would not perform it even if one was rewarded for it. Bandura (1986) extended Rotter’s idea to say that if one did not think oneself capable of performing an outcome, one might not be motivated to perform it.

Social Modeling

Modeling. Bandura’s (1986) social-modeling approach states that people do not have to experience reward or punishment themselves in order to learn: one can observe another person model a behavior or emotional response and learn it vicariously (see Wilson and Fundukian, 2008). Based on the perceived success of models, learners can generalize and make inferences about desirable new behaviors, that is, one can learn abstract rules and behaviors from models.

Teachers, parents or other students can all be perceived as models. Teachers may encourage good student behavior by modeling empathy, sharing, and helpfulness themselves. Teachers can also show parents how they can successfully interact with their children socially and in terms of schoolwork, giving parents the confidence that can do the same (Bandura, 1986)..Students can also be models for each other. At-risk children may be paired with classmates who can model good social and academic skills (Hektner, August, & Realmuto, 2003). Gifted children can benefit considerably from being in classes with other gifted children who model higher-level thinking skills and interest in challenging questions (Burney, 2008).

Learning from models. Compared to behaviorists, social modeling theorists are generally more interested in how the learner interprets the learning situation than in how behavior changes as a result of reinforcements. For example, they think students try to perform activities based on in part on their identification with models (Bandura 1986): if they admire the model, think the model is like themselves, or feel able to carry out those activities, students may be more likely to model that person. Students may also pay more attention to some aspects of the model than others, for example, attending more to someone’s actions than their words (Bandura, 2003). Another question might be whether students are paying attention to the model and are able to remember what they have paid attention to (Bandura, 1986).

Self-efficacy. After imitating a model, students are likely to internalize the behavior. When they can perform behaviors on their own, they develop a sense of themselves as competent to perform it. In contrast, Behaviorism overlooks the self-concept in talking about learning According to Bandura, feeling competent to perform tasks oneself (self-efficacy) is a powerful factor in motivating people to learn (Bandura, 1997), and can be more rewarding than extrinsic rewards (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2003). Bandura (1997) reported that children who set short-term personal goals and attain them feel greater self-efficacy, competence and interest in what they learn than children who have no goals or only have long term goals.

The teacher can also play an important role in encouraging students’ sense of competence as well as reinforcing their performance in specific learning activities. According to social learning theorists, reinforcement is valued because it helps students understand which aspects of the task to pay attention to and model. Further, according to Bandura’s (1986) idea of reciprocal determinism—which says that the environment and the person can affect each other—the student could influence the teacher. In contrast, behaviorist theorists would perceive the teacher is influential and the student as passive.

Constructivism

Constructing knowledge through personal and social reflection. Although Behaviorists and social modeling theorists tend to emphasize the role of external factors (such as reinforcements or models) in shaping others’ behavior, constructivists emphasize people trying to make sense of the world themselves. “Knowledge is constructed by learners as they attempt to make sense of their experience” (Driscoll, 2000, p. 376).

Constructivism has its roots in the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Dewey (see Driscoll, 2000). Piaget (1950) thought children actively tried to make sense of the world rather than passively receiving knowledge from others. Vygotsky (1978) also thought children were actively involved in learning because they belonged to social environments where they learned language and interacted with others. He thought that learning occurred when one person interacted with others to solve problems and learn material at a level somewhat higher than the learner could manage alone. Dewey (1938) also believed that learning was a social activity. He tried to encourage interest in problem solving by asking students to carry out real world tasks such as group projects planting gardens.

Learning by doing and interacting. Interests in a learner’s social interaction and problem solving in real-world settings can be seen in constructivist theories today. According to Jonassen (1994), reality and meaning are defined by each individual and not universally. There are many different representations of reality. The task of learners is to construct knowledge from different sources and perspectives instead of regurgitating information spoon-fed to them by teachers who hold a “correct” point of view. In a constructivist classroom, students tackle complicated tasks, resembling cases in the real world. Wiggins (1993) emphasizes the importance of:

 …engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas of or analogous to the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the field." (p. 229).

For example, students could be asked to test models of motion on the computer and learn physics by changing conditions in the model  (e.g. White & Horwitz, 1987), instead of being taught abstract rules of physics in a classroom lecture that presented the ideas in a structured way and without reference to context

Attempting to solve problems and solving them with others can help students develop higher-order thinking skills as they analyze the problem, synthesize what they have learned about it from each other, and evaluate possible solutions. In this way, they will comprehend the content more deeply than if they had simply memorized it. Because the constructivist approach enables students to acquire skills that have practical applications in the real world, schoolwork can become more interesting and meaningful to them. However, not all students may be interested in being responsible for their own learning. Perkins (1991) writes that teachers need to persuade students both to become involved with the subject matter and with the issue of how they learn. 

Multiple Intelligences

Individual knowing in innate ways. According to Gardner’s (1983) Theory of Multiple Intelligences, students can have preferred intelligence—the ability to solve problems or make products—in any of eight different areas: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. A child who does not excel in the traditional classroom domains of linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence may still be strong in another kind of intelligence, which may also guide how the student likes to learn things. For example, students with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence might like to move around and tend to excel in physical activities like sports. They might prefer learning by making things to learning by reading. Students with interpersonal intelligence—defined as sensitivity to others’ feelings and motivations, with an ability to communicate and work together easily with others—may prefer working in groups. On the other hand, students with intrapersonal intelligence—defined as having an ability to be introspective and self-aware—might prefer activities that involve thinking, and may prefer working alone.

Learning appropriate to intelligence type. According to Gardner (1983), preferred intelligences also represent ways that students prefer to learn. Teachers can teach more effectively if they use a variety of activities based around different styles of intelligence. They should figure out or help the child figure out what his or her intelligence is and provide learning activities that are compatible with that intelligence. As an example, a teacher might tailor instruction about computers differently depending n a child’s preferred intelligence:

Logical-mathematical intelligence seems central, because programming depends upon the deployment of strict procedures to solve a problem or attain a goal in a finite number of steps. Linguistic intelligence is also relevant, at least as long as manual and computer languages make use of ordinary language...an individual with a strong musical bent might best be introduced to programming by attempting to program a simple musical piece (or to master a program that composes). An individual with strong spatial abilities might be initiated through some form of computer graphics—and might be aided in the task of programming through the use of a flowchart or some other spatial diagram. Personal intelligences can play important roles. The extensive planning of steps and goals carried out by the individual engaged in programming relies on intrapersonal forms of thinking, even as the cooperation needed for carrying a complex task or for learning new computational skills may rely on an individual's ability to work with a team. Kinesthetic intelligence may play a role in working with the computer itself, by facilitating skill at the terminal... (Gardner, 1983, p 390)

 Engagement in learning. When a lesson is tailored to children’s interests and abilities, they should learn better and have more fun. Children’s fun can be seen in how much they are smiling, how much time they are spending on task, or if they don’t want to stop working. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) defines “flow” or an optimal experience occurring when a person is so absorbed in an activity that she or he loses a sense of self-consciousness, feels challenged, and finds that time seems to pass quickly. Flow is similar to serious play. According to Rieber and Matzko (2001),

We define serious play as an intensive and voluntary learning interaction consisting of both cognitive and physical elements...It is tempting to equate serious play with flow, however, one key difference is that learning is an expressed outcome of serious play. (¶ 13

When students are deeply involved in learning, they may also be more likely to behave well.

Gardner’s theory has been challenged on the grounds that there is little research supporting it, with more research to support the idea of a single global intelligence (Waterhouse, 2006)). Educators may also not want children to think that they because they don’t have a preferred intelligence in an area, they can’t learn it or excel at it.

Still, Gardner’s theory may inspire respect for diverse abilities or talents in the classroom and remind teachers of creative ways to present material  In general all of the theories discussed above may be useful in the classroom, as the next part of the paper illustrates.

Applying Theories to the Design of Instruction

The Writer’s Work Setting

Currently, the writer teaches music to students in grades K through 5 at an elementary school in California. She has 19 classes of 20-30 students each that attend music class twice a week for 30 minutes. In these classes, she applies behaviorism, social modeling, constructivism, and multiple intelligence theory effectively to the design of instruction.

As the instructional designer for all music classes, the writer designs instruction based on objectives that come from the nine National and School District Music Standards: singing; playing instruments; improvising; composing; reading and notating music; listening to and analyzing music; evaluating music; understanding relationships between music, the other arts and disciplines outside the arts; and understanding music in relation to history and culture. The main goal in the classroom is to have students learn the material listed for their grade level in the District Music Standards and transfer the information and skills into long-term memory. The main goals for students are to perform well at concerts and do well on music tests and projects so they get good grades on their report cards. In her instructional design, the author uses both traditional and authentic assessment. Students are given tests after studying a particular area; however, when working on projects, they receive ongoing feedback, or formative assessment.

Currently, the technology available in the classroom includes approximately 400 musical instruments of all kinds, and a laptop computer and an iPod for the teacher. The writer has adopted a learner-centered focus where children learn by using instruments. In kindergarten, first, second, and fifth grades, the instruction revolves around the electronic piano keyboard; in third grade, the song flutes; and in fourth grade, recorders. The writer has also previously used computer technology in the classroom. However, not only is technology a financial burden for the school at this time, but the current trend away from technology (Warlick, 2007) and toward the objectivism demanded of the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act has limited the use of constructivism and technology in the writer’s classroom.

Behaviorism

The writer uses behaviorist principles regularly in her teaching. For example, when teaching the placement of musical notes on the staff, she demonstrates at the overhead projector and then asks students to repeat the task themselves. As they do, she walks around and gives immediate feedback as to whether the children have placed the notes correctly. In recorder karate, students are given a colored piece of yarn (“black belt”) to tie on their recorders when they learn how to play a certain song.

The writer also first teaches simple tasks such as placement or recognition of musical notes, followed by more complex tasks that build on this knowledge, such as composition. The nine music standards are also posted in the classroom. Following Behaviorist principles that objectives and classroom activities should be clearly aligned (Bloom, 1956), the teacher refers to these objectives frequently as she carries out class activities that demonstrate them. The two classroom rules and five school rules (for example “Learn and contribute”) are also posted in the class so students know the rules.

In terms of classroom management, the writer uses Carter’s (1992) Assertive Discipline Plan, a behaviorist approach. On a daily basis, rewards and consequences are used to keep students motivated to achieve desired academic and social behavior. If children break rules they are punished. Their names are listed on the board and they do not get their hand stamped at the end of class or may be asked to sit in time-out. If students’ names are not listed on the board, they get their hands stamped, plus one student is chosen each class to receive a Hi-5, a school-wide reward. If students receive enough Hi-5s, their photos are displayed in the hall. If no one in the class gets their names on the board, the class receives a Community Award and may be treated to an ice cream party.

In this writer’s experience, reinforcements seem to be especially effective with younger children who are eager to please and highly influenced by moral considerations of right and wrong. Although these incentives encourage most students to behave, it is frequently the same children who receive two checks and do not learn from this approach. To change their behavior, another behaviorist technique is to call parents, who can provide additional punishment at home. Punishment also appears to be effective in motivating elementary school children. For instance, one fifth-grade band sounded like eighth graders when punishments such as detention were given when students did not practice at home or did not show up for class. When the school stopped using detention as a punishment, the quality of the band went downhill.

Social Modeling

Social modeling is also employed in the writer’s classroom, especially with the use of Hunter’s (1994) Seven Step Lesson Plan Design, where direct instruction is provided to students through the use of Review, Anticipatory Set, Objective, Input and Modeling, Checking Understanding, Guided Practice, and Independent Practice. Using this method on a daily basis, the teacher gives examples of and models concepts and skills the student needs to learn: for example, how to sing or play instruments, whether by reading music or improvising. Scaffolding is provided at the overhead projector where examples of composing and notating music are given, and guided practice is provided. The classroom climate is also influenced by social modeling. The teacher’s respectful, calm and cheerful behavior gives children a sense of how to behave to maintain good feelings.

Students also informally model or are called upon to formally model musical skills, and the teacher encourages students to teach each other. When students finish their work early, she gives them shoelaces to wear around their necks to show they are available to help others. Students are eager to model the teacher and to be helpers. Some work even harder than usual in order to get to wear the shoelace and help. If students are having problems learning songs, they are also paired up with those who have been successful learning them. Another principle the teacher uses is “Ask three before you ask me,” which encourages students to help each other. Unfortunately, students can also model underachievement, which is why the writer removes misbehaving students from the class and sends them to the principal’s office.

To help students develop a sense of self-efficacy, the writer uses scaffolding when designing instruction for composing and notating music. She interacts with the class, asking them what notes and rhythm they want to use in a short piece of music that the class composes. She then asks students to compose a piece of music themselves. As students learn how to do it, they can do it with less of her questioning until they can do it independently. The writer also lets students take control over the pacing, sequence and content of learning musical instruments.

Further, the writer encourages students to develop a sense of self-efficacy when she points out situations in which they have succeeded. Students who first believe they are unable to perform a task realize that they are indeed able to complete it. Self-efficacy is also reflected when learners make their own decisions, such as what to include in music they compose.

Another way that the teacher validates the students is in her interaction with them as a coach. For example, many students who use a chest voice when singing are not used to singing in or listening to someone singing in a head voice. The writer can listen to and understand the view of the student and select more music designed for the chest voice, and the student may seek to understand the view of the instructor and learn to sing in a head voice at desirable times.

Constructivism

Constructivist ideas are also apparent in this author’s instructional design when she gives children questions to discuss in groups. These questions examine music from a holistic point of view by using such Icons of Depth and Complexity (Kaplan, 2002) as language of the discipline, music details, ethics, rules, trends, multiple perspectives, patterns (including big ideas and changes over time), and unanswered questions. These help students examine such subjects as music history, listening to and analyzing music, evaluating music, and how music relates to other disciplines. Students are also asked to evaluate real-world questions about music, such as whether composer should change their music to suit record companies.

Once students develop a broad understanding of music concepts, they are given real-world examples of music to analyze. One constructivist project involved children working in groups to make a Powerpoint presentation about music from another country, as well as presenting online research they found on a country’s population, industry, flag and map. Students had to analyze the melodic and rhythmic organization of that country’s music, as well as how harmony and instruments were used. The teacher circulated around the classroom, answering questions. In the end, students summarized their findings and presented ideas for next steps in their learning to the class. Students learned terms for pitches and music notes, thought about different ways that music wove melodies and polyphony, and realized they needed to make sense of another country’s music based on previous instruction about music.

Students are also asked to improvise and play music. The experiences children have exploring instruments suggest new questions, and students develop a quest for new knowledge about how to play better. Children also become more curious about the music subject matter as something that can help them improvise in more interesting ways. In the past, when a desktop computer and wireless laptops were available, the writer also asked students to use music and moviemaker software to compose music, make web pages; use e-mail, digital cameras and video cameras, MIDI USB piano keyboards, and microphones; and record and burn CDs and DVDs.

The writer has also used group activities for project-based learning. These encourage constructivism by having students work together to make sense of the real world. However, group techniques—and especially jigsaw techniques used for online projects—have not always worked well. In a classroom with 32 students going off on tangents online, it is difficult to give each student attention and make sure each stays on task. With direct instruction, everyone is on the same page at the same time, and the instructor has more control over activities in the class.

Also, in order to guide students toward learning, more time is needed than in a traditional classroom where the teacher gives information directly. Even in a constructivist classroom, teachers might still be seen as the only source of knowledge, rather than being seen as facilitators. For example, when the teacher circulates around groups of students who are working collaboratively, students often depend on the teacher for all clarifications about the assignment.

A benefit of constructivist approaches is that they recognize that students have different ways of learning and attempt to place student needs first. Teachers should endeavor to meet student needs by being creative, understanding, patient, and motivating. The writer agrees with Morrison, Ross and Kemp (2004), who emphasize constant reflection on and change of the lesson, in response to student needs.

Multiple Intelligences

Finally, as someone who believes that musical skills can be taught from pre-school up to the professional level, the writer is not sure she believes in Gardner’s (1983) idea of multiple intelligences. Gardner (1983) believes that students with musical intelligence have strong auditory skills and thus are successful with using rhythm, music and hearing. However, the writer has found that student’s musical ability seems at first to be more closely related to how much parents encourage music in the home. Where some children sing less well than others, she encourages the children to sing more at home. She has also noticed that children who sing well are not necessarily the best players of instruments or may not be able to read music—that is, there are many different types of musical skills and these are not necessarily related.

The writer has also been asked to test students for multiple intelligences and then found that the teachers in the school did not use the results. The teachers were too busy and it appeared too difficult to design at least eight different activities related to these intelligences for each learning goal. The writer herself tries to incorporate some activities compatible with these intelligences into her year-long plan. For example, her music class also includes linguistic activities (such as creating a jingle, oral report, essay, or podcast); spatial activities (such as making animated movies with music) and bodily-kinesthetic activities (such as dancing).

Ways That All of the Learning Theories May be Useful in Instruction

In general, all of the theories described above can be useful for instruction. In order to select the best theory to use, it is wise to consider the needs of the student and characteristics of the subject matter.

An advantage of choosing a behaviorist approach is that it can benefit students who prefer to have class objectives stated clearly and in a logical order. It can be especially useful for younger students who do not have much background knowledge, may not know what needs to be done to solve problems, and need the teacher to present what they are supposed to know.

Student motivation is also important to consider. A behaviorist approach may be an effective way to reach a student who is already motivated because the teacher can present material relatively quickly and directly, and students can learn quickly and be reinforced for learning. Also, students who are not intrinsically motivated to study a subject may still look forward to being rewarded for learning. For similar reasons, a behaviorist approach might also be useful for teaching content requiring rote learning.

When the instructor is using social modeling, students are able to learn material in social context. For instance, they can see a real person performing the tasks they are learning about and get an idea that it is possible. Students can also pick up social and emotional qualities of the model; for example, a student can learn to play a musical instrument with more feeling, or learn what to do when they make mistakes. Students also benefit from seeing their classmates accomplish a task, and feel like it is more possible for them to complete the task themselves. Seeing models of competed projects or papers that others have done can also help students learn.

Social Modeling Theory can be especially helpful in working with younger children, who have generally not developed abstract concepts and learn well by seeing specific examples.

Using constructivist theory in instructional design can be used to inspire people because students can be hooked into learning when solving problems in groups, trying to answer questions they are interested in, or addressing challenging real-world problems. Constructivist instructional techniques can be used to develop higher-level thinking skills in any subject area. They may be especially useful for connecting subjects in interdisciplinary ways, or for bringing technical or scientific subjects alive as students try to solve problems in those areas. These methods may be especially useful for older children who already have background knowledge and problem-solving skills, and may not like an authority figure telling them what to do, but enjoy being an authority in groups.

It is also useful to select activities appealing to “multiple intelligences” when designing instruction because these approaches offer a variety of strategies a teacher can use to make a subject more interesting. In traditional schools, the main focus is usually on English and Math. For students who are not good at these areas, studying them in the context of other activities (such as art or movement) may help students become more interested in traditional classroom work. Teachers can also make students aware of other creative potentialities they may have.

Conclusion

This writer believes that all experienced educators and instructional designers develop their own “voice,” as they develop their own curriculum based on learning theories. Observers may even begin to recognize that a certain lesson was designed by a particular designer—just as a piece of artwork was created by a certain artist, or music by a specific composer.

Agreeing with Driscoll (2000) and others about the value and wide applicability of constructivism, the writer uses her own instructional design theory called the Self-Assembly Method, which is rooted in constructivist theory. Self-assembly offers a holistic model for instructional design. In the spirit of constructivism, it recognizes that each instructional design process will be unique and that each designer will have the ability to determine the specific actions to take. In part, immediate interaction with her learners allows the writer to adapt her methodology and activities as she teaches. Just as the jazz musician improvises a piece and a structure emerges from the improvisation, one of the main ideas of the Self-Assembly Method is to write down the design of instruction after the instruction has been carried out to see how the instruction assembles itself. The model's purpose is to help the designer stay focused on the big picture so as to ensure that each piece of the design and each action taken by the designer is in harmony while also meeting the needs of the class.